My expectations for the project

INTRODUCTION

Writing structure (is introduction structured correctly?)

Amount of literature reviewed

Relevance of literature to the research question

Interpretation of literature

METHOD

Choice of method explained and linked to literature.

What method will you use to identify the problems involved in this situation?

What are the issues here?

Detailed research / Theory and design in report description & understanding of topic/problems, awareness and solutions to technical/scientific challenges

Participants description: clarity / amount of detail

Procedure description: clarity/ amount of detail

Correct and clear description of research design

ANALYSIS

Appropriate analyses chosen

Chosen analyses carried out correctly

Reporting of descriptive stats (e.g. means, SD, r) [If necessary]

Reporting of inferential stats (e.g. significance tests) [If necessary]

Clear use of tables, figures and diagrams

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Brief summary of results

Discussion of relation between results and  question

Critical analysis & evaluation, conclusion, summary of achievements, reflection, identification of

improvements

ORGANIZATION & UNITY

Technical terms/abbreviations used correctly

Coherence and clarity of writing

Spelling and punctuation

Grammar and non-technical word usage

Paragraph structure /length

PRESENTATION & REFERENCING

Independence of work

Correct referencing

Constructive Controversy

 

Involving other people – who inevitably have different perspectives and views – will help you to ensure that you have considered all options or alternatives available before you arrive at one solution. It forces us to consider the options, and make sure that you make decisions for the best reasons and for the best interest of the business.
The best ways is to learn from other peoples mistakes and experiences?
Constructive Controversy is a powerful technique for doing this. Its objective is test a proposed solution by subjecting it to the "clash of ideas", showing it to be wrong, proving it, or improving it. As such, by using Constructive Controversy, your confidence in the solution chosen improves as you reach a better understanding of all the factors involved.What is Constructive Controversy?
This problem-solving approach was introduced by David Johnson and Roger Johnson in 1979. It has been researched and validated, and it's recognized as a leading model for developing robust and creative solutions to problems. The technique draws on five key assumptions on constructive controversy:
We adopt an initial perspective towards a problem based on our personal experiences and perceptions.
The process of persuading others to agree with us strengthens our belief that we are right.When confronted with competing viewpoints, we begin to doubt our rationale.
The more times you go through the cycle, the closer you come to the "truth" or the "right" solution and taking into account the constructive controversy.
Using Constructive Controversy tends to produce better solutions, compared with solving problems using consensus, debate, or individual effort. This happens because the Constructive Controversy process forces you to face your assumptions and avoid drawing conclusions too quickly. At the same time, it pushes you to use clear reasoning to defend or argue against a position, and it helps to protect you from logical fallacies and blind spots, because you're forced to explain and defend your rationale. Your aim of creating constructive controversy
Constructive Controversy is not about simply arguing and creating conflict for its own sake, no. It follows a formal procedure to manage controversy in a positive way:
Step 1: Brainstorm possible solutions to the problem.
Click here for tips on how to do this most effectively.
Step 2: Form advocacy teams that focus on constructive criticism.
Each team is given an alternative, researches it, and presents a best-case scenario supporting why that alternative should be chosen.
Step 3: Engage in Constructive Controversy.
Use the following steps:
Each team presents its case to the wider group involved in constructive controversy. The objective is to help the group understand the particular choice, and convince people of its validity.
The emphasis is on logic and critical thinking. Remind the teams that the overall objective is to gain a better understanding of all options in order to make the best decision possible. Encourage them to ask for solid data, and push the team to defend its conclusions.
NOTE: You can repeat this step so that everyone has an opportunity to argue for each alternative available in the decision to be made that involves constructive controversy . If time is limited, however, you may want to narrow the choices down to two possible options before you start this step, so that there are only two advocacy teams.
Step 4: Decide.

Now's the time to drop the advocacy roles, and bring the group together to make a final decision. Take the time to explore what people have learned from the constructive controversy process, and then bring together ideas to create a final proposal.

Courtesy: Business decisions

Root Cause Analysis

 

A powerful five-step problem-solving process.

© iStockphoto

In medicine, it's easy to understand the difference between treating symptoms and curing a medical condition. Sure, when you're in pain because you've broken your wrist, you WANT to have your symptoms treated – now! However, taking painkillers won't heal your wrist, and true healing is needed before the symptoms can disappear for good.
But when you have a problem at work, how do you approach it? Do you jump in and start treating the symptoms? Or do you stop to consider whether there's actually a deeper problem that needs your attention?
If you only fix the symptoms – what you see on the surface – the problem will almost certainly happen again... which will lead you to fix it, again, and again, and again.
If, instead, you look deeper to figure out why the problem is occurring, you can fix the underlying systems and processes that cause the problem.
Root Cause Analysis (RCA) is a popular and often-used technique that helps people answer the question of why the problem occurred in the first place.
Root Cause Analysis seeks to identify the origin of a problem. It uses a specific set of steps, with associated tools, to find the primary cause of the problem, so that you can:

1. Determine what happened.
2. Determine why it happened.
3. Figure out what to do to reduce the likelihood that it will happen again.

RCA assumes that systems and events are interrelated. An action in one area triggers an action in another, and another, and so on. By tracing back these actions, you can discover where the problem started and how it grew into the symptom you're now facing.
You'll usually find three basic types of causes:

1. Physical causes – Tangible, material items failed in some way (for example, a car's brakes stopped working).
2. Human causes – People did something wrong, or did not doing something that was needed. Human causes typically lead to physical causes (for example, no one filled the brake fluid, which led to the brakes failing).
3. Organizational causes – A system, process, or policy that people use to make decisions or do their work is faulty (for example, no one person was responsible for vehicle maintenance, and everyone assumed someone else had filled the brake fluid).

Root Cause Analysis looks at all three types of causes. It involves investigating the patterns of negative effects, finding hidden flaws in the system, and discovering specific actions that contributed to the problem. This often means that RCA reveals more than one root cause.

You can apply Root Cause Analysis to almost any situation. Determining how far to go in your investigation requires good judgment and common sense. Theoretically, you could continue to trace root causes back to the Stone Age, but the effort would serve no useful purpose. Be careful to understand when you've found a significant cause that can, in fact, be changed.

The Root Cause Analysis Process

Root Cause Analysis has five identifiable steps.

Step One: Define the Problem

• What do you see happening?
• What are the specific symptoms?

Step Two: Collect Data

• What proof do you have that the problem exists?
• How long has the problem existed?
• What is the impact of the problem?

You need to analyze a situation fully before you can move on to look at factors that contributed to the problem. To maximize the effectiveness of your Root Cause Analysis, get together everyone – experts and front line staff – who understands the situation. People who are most familiar with the problem can help lead you to a better understanding of the issues.
A helpful tool at this stage is CATWOE. With this process, you look at the same situation from different perspectives: the Customers, the people (Actors) who implement the solutions, the Transformation process that's affected, the World view, the process Owner, and Environmental constraints.

Step Three: Identify Possible Causal Factors

• What sequence of events leads to the problem?
• What conditions allow the problem to occur?
• What other problems surround the occurrence of the central problem?

During this stage, identify as many causal factors as possible. Too often, people identify one or two factors and then stop, but that's not sufficient. With RCA, you don't want to simply treat the most obvious causes – you want to dig deeper.
Use these tools to help identify causal factors:

• Appreciation – Use the facts and ask "So what?" to determine all the possible consequences of a fact.
• 5 Whys – Ask "Why?" until you get to the root of the problem.
• Drill Down – Break down a problem into small, detailed parts to better understand the big picture.
• Cause and Effect Diagrams – Create a chart of all of the possible causal factors, to see where the trouble may have begun.

Step Four: Identify the Root Cause(s)

• Why does the causal factor exist?
• What is the real reason the problem occurred?

Use the same tools you used to identify the causal factors (in Step Three) to look at the roots of each factor. These tools are designed to encourage you to dig deeper at each level of cause and effect.

Step Five: Recommend and Implement Solutions

• What can you do to prevent the problem from happening again?
• How will the solution be implemented?
• Who will be responsible for it?
• What are the risks of implementing the solution?

Analyze your cause-and-effect process, and identify the changes needed for various systems. It's also important that you plan ahead to predict the effects of your solution. This way, you can spot potential failures before they happen.
One way of doing this is to use Failure Mode and Effects Analysis (FMEA). This tool builds on the idea of risk analysis to identify points where a solution could fail. FMEA is also a great system to implement across your organization; the more systems and processes that use FMEA at the start, the less likely you are to have problems that need Root Cause Analysis in the future.
Impact Analysis is another useful tool here. This helps you explore possible positive and negative consequences of a change on different parts of a system or organization.
Another great strategy to adopt is Kaizen, or continuous improvement. This is the idea that continual small changes create better systems overall. Kaizen also emphasizes that the people closest to a process should identify places for improvement. Again, with kaizen alive and well in your company, the root causes of problems can be identified and resolved quickly and effectively.

 

From:  Mind tools

Creative Facilitating Techniques

Author: Exforsys Inc.     Published on: 15th Apr 2010

Many facilitators get to use at least one type of visual aid to help them in their facilitation task. Visual aids enhance the learning process of the participants and increase retention of the grasped knowledge during the discussion. When planning to use any visual aid, the material should be prepared ahead of time.

During the preparation stage of your facilitation task, you should have the tools ready instead of having to prepare them at the time of the event. Early preparation reflects the professionalism of the facilitator and earns respect from the participants.

There are various types of visual materials a facilitator can choose from. The most common among these are flipcharts, whiteboards, and overhead transparencies. But a PowerPoint presentation is becoming a more popular and favorite visual aid these days. Other visual materials that can be used in programs and workshops are pictures, videos, and some three-dimensional figures. Some facilitators use more than one visual aid in a given workshop.

For example, when facilitating a leadership seminar, you can prepare a flip chart, make use of white boards, and videotape for your documentary footage. But in facilitating a meeting, usually an overhead projector or PowerPoint presentation will do.

Understanding the Advantages of Visual Aids

It has been mentioned in the earlier paragraph that visual aids enhance the learning process of participants and help them retain the information they got from the discussion. People tend to easily remember a thing and an idea when they have seen it. Visual learning has been proven to be very effective to many participants in any workshop or program.

All facilitation programs benefit a lot from the use of visual materials. It brings out the creativity of the facilitator when it comes to applying a variation in the learning methods. Moreover, it turns a passive and uninteresting session into an enthusiastic and fun-filled event. Attendees get off their seats and move around the room as they exchange ideas and learn from each other through the help of the visual aids.

On the part of the facilitator, visual aids help in promoting clarity of the message and even aids in the decision-making aspect. The use of these tools keeps you within your subject matter and within the flow of the process.

Choosing the Appropriate Visual Aid to Use

Choosing a suitable visual aid to use in the program’s activities is an important decision to make. Every facilitator must make sure that the visual material selected will reinforce the message and support the group’s objectives and the whole process. Visual aid selection may possibly depend on factors such as the type of program or session, the subject matter, population of attendees, and time allocation. Also, use these materials when necessary and when appropriate. Do not use it to flaunt your ability to utilize available resources when the visual aid you chose does not even suit your discussion. Also, do not use too many of these materials in your session as it will only distract attention and may not encourage a lot of interaction.

Flipchart is very commonly used in a small group activity. The use of flipchart provides an ongoing record or note-taking of the group’s ideas and discussions. If you wish to keep the interest of your attendees in the subject matter, use a videotape. Videos also offer useful information. An overhead projector or a PowerPoint presentation aids in reinforcing the key points of the discussion. Depending on the need and requirement of the session, appropriate visual aids should be selected for an effective facilitation.

Creative Facilitating Tools and Techniques

Apart from the use of visual aids, a facilitator may also benefit from the use of other means in facilitating learning. Ice breakers, games, role playing, brainstorming, group drills and exercises, and impromptu dialogues are creative ways in supporting a learning process. For a quick session or facilitation activity, any of these methods will help in the course of the discussion. These learning techniques promote a healthy interaction and builds teamwork among the participants.

The use of visual aids and other facilitating techniques definitely helps you in keeping the process easy and smooth until the goals are achieved by the group. But as a professional facilitator, you must know the essence of these materials and the benefits it can provide to the whole facilitation process.

Group Discussion Challenges

Author : Exforsys Inc.     

Group Discussion Challenges

If you are the leader of a group discussion, there are a number of challenges you will have to face. Being able to successfully overcome these challenges will mean the difference between the success and failure of your group.

In this article, I will go over these challenges, and I will present strategies that can allow you to overcome them. The biggest challenges that you will face in group discussions are avoiding put-downs, connecting solutions, listening for data, and summarizing ideas. Being able to overcome these challenges will bring about successful group discussions.

Avoding put-downs are extremely important. Put-downs occur when members of the group ridicule the ideas that are presented by other members. When this happens, it can slow down the productivity of the group, and can stop other members for voicing their own ideas or solutions. One way to solve this problem is to make it clear at the beginning of the discussion that no put-downs are allowed. Let the members know that if they do not agree with an idea that has been presented, come up with a better idea and present it in a way that does not humiliate the person that they are in disagreement with.

Another way to avoid put-downs is to let members know that you appreciate their hard work. This will make the confident, and will encourage them to work harder. The next challenge that you will want to overcome is the connecting solutions or ideas. The goal of most group discussion is to solve a problem. This is especially true for companies that are trying to develop marketing strategies. In order for them to succeed, it is important for members to make connections regarding the information that is discussed. One common problem that is seen in group discussion is members who create new ideas instead of adding to an idea that has been presented by another member.

Often, these ideas will not be related to the other ideas that were raised. This is problematic, because a group will not be able to come up with a relevant solution to a problem if the members keep generating new ideas without building on them. In the best group discussions, a few members will come up with some good ideas,and other members will contribute to it instead of producing new ideas. When this happens, a powerful solution to a problem can be developed. To solve this problem, the leader can ask one member to give their opinion on an idea or solution that can be used to solve the problem. Once they have presented their idea or solution, the leader can call on all the other members to respond to the idea without creating something new.

The next challenge that you will want to focus on is listening for information or data. This is a challenge that logically follows making connections between ideas. It is important for the members to be able to summarize the information they have learned. When the members are able to summarize the information, this can help the group reach a decision on an idea or course of action. Summarizing information can be difficult if members have not been properly trained. In a nutshell, they will need to go over the central idea of the discussion and summarize any points that have been brought up.

It is also important for all members to listen for important ideas. This is the last challenge that must be overcome. When everyone is attentive, they will be able to respond to ideas by adding relevant concepts that can better allow the group to solve a problem. If the members are not listening to the ideas that are being presented, they will not be able to respond to them effectively, and this can reduce the ability of the group to come up with relevant ideas.

A good way to make sure the members are listening to others is to have a person read the text out loud, and then call on the other members randomly to make sure they understand what is being discussed. This will ensure that they are paying attention during the discussion.

Once you are able to overcome these challenges, your group discussion will be effective, and you will be able to develop excellent solutions that can be used to solve a problem.

How to Avoid Arguments during Meetings

Author: Exforsys Inc.     

Conflicts are rooted from differences and contrasting ideas between individuals. Disagreements are not naturally bad. In fact, it is normal and a natural part of life since no two individuals share the same viewpoints at all times. The person you are talking to may agree with you but you can never tell whether the agreement is just because that is what you want to hear, but not what the person actually believes in.

The occurrences of conflicts in meetings at work or in business can be unsettling and disruptive. It may cause delays in the decision making and resolution process. At times, the atmosphere in a meeting can become tense because individuals have differing personalities, ideas, and beliefs. These differences are factors from the arguments during meeting discussions. Arguments are a waste of time and get in the way toward an effective meeting process.

Keeping Arguments in Control

Disagreements are fine and normal in a discussion. If you think about it, the participant who disagrees with another person’s viewpoints is concerned about reaching a resolution that is beneficial for the group. When another individual rebuts the disagreement, an argument occurs. People argue because they want to defend personal beliefs about a subject matter. Expect this kind of situation in a meeting since participants vary in their personalities.

The main function of the meeting facilitator or leader in a session is to regulate the smooth flow of the meeting process with the aim of achieving the set objectives. An important part of the facilitator’s role is to keep any arguments from leading to uncontrollable conflicts. In order to manifest this, the meeting in-charge must see to it that no one starts using offensive language and raises the voice in an attempt to become annoyingly argumentative. The facilitator must find some truth to the stand of each party and identify a common ground for agreement in the two positions.

Listening to professionals lose control in their arguments is not very impressive. If the argument starts getting out of hand, the facilitator must put a halt to it immediately. If there is a need to end the meeting and put it off in the meantime, then the meeting leader can resort to that. The argument can also be deferred to be handled in the latter part of the meeting.

Tips to Avoid Arguments in Meetings

Meeting participants must learn the art of dealing with arguments during a session. Although the facilitator primarily supervises the situation, meeting attendees should also take part in keeping the discussion within a mature and professional level.

Active listening is very essential in an interaction. Really listen to what the other participants have to say about the subject matter. Minimize listening too much on personal beliefs. Instead, understand what the other person says and respond appropriately. Assumptions hinder active listening and can cause conflict. Ask questions to clarify rather than assume.

Having an established set of meeting rules help minimize arguments in a meeting. Your organization should have these rules implemented in every session. The facilitator can remind everyone of these ground rules before the meeting starts. It should be clear to all participants that any violation of the rules corresponds to a sanction.

The value of respect is often neglected and not manifested by everyone when it should be a basic of proper meeting etiquette. How do you demonstrate respect to other participants in a meeting? Simply avoid unnecessary interruption when someone else is speaking. Do not make personal attacks when you are mad at someone. Keep your use of words and language professional.

How to Disagree in a Diplomatic Manner

Participants must keep a sense of diplomacy when disagreeing with each other during meetings. In arguing opinions, make sure to reflect your understanding of the viewpoints of the other person. Always make the other person feel that even though you differ in opinions, you value the person as an individual who is entitled to his own opinions.

Then you can state your personal opinions whether you agree or disagree. Deliver your ideas in a manner that aims to interact comfortably and not like you wish to start a fight. The goal is to reach a compromise and move on with the meeting process after having settled arguments amicably.

Group Dynamics: Basic Nature of Groups and How They Develop

DO YOUR GATHERING A GROUP OR A TEAM?

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD

This might seem like a silly question, but it is not. Gatherings of less than 10-12 people are considered by organizational development consultants to be a small group. Information in this section is most useful for forming and facilitating small groups of 10-12 people or less.

Groups that are larger than that range tend to have another level of complexity not apparent in small groups. For example, the nature and needs of larger groups are often similar to those of entire ongoing organizations. They have their own various subcultures, distinct subsystems (or cliques), diversity of leadership styles and levels of communication. While certain structures are often useful in small groups, they are absolutely necessary on an ongoing basis in larger groups. For example, larger groups should have a clearly established purpose that is continually communicated, and formal plans and policies about ongoing leadership, decision making, problem solving and communication.

LIFE STAGES OF A TEAM

© Copyright Carter McNamara, MBA, PhD

When developing a team, it helps a great deal to have some basic sense of the stages that a typical team moves through when evolving into a high-performing team. Awareness of each stage helps leaders to understand the reasons for members’ behavior during that stage, and to guide members to behavior required to evolve the team into the next stage.

1. Forming

Members first get together during this stage. Individually, they are considering questions like, “What am I here for?”, “Who else is here?” and “Who am I comfortable with?” It is important for members to get involved with each other, including introducing themselves to each other. Clear and strong leadership is required from the team leader during this stage to ensure the group members feel the clarity and comfort required to evolve to the next stage.

2. Storming

During this stage, members are beginning to voice their individual differences, join with others who share the same beliefs, and jockey for position in the group. Therefore, it is important for members to continue to be highly involved with each other, including to voice any concerns in order to feel represented and understood. The team leader should help members to voice their views, and to achieve consensus (or commonality of views) about their purpose and priorities.

3. Norming

In this stage, members are beginning to share a common commitment to the purpose of the group, including to its overall goals and how each of the goals can be achieved. The team leader should focus on continuing to clarify the roles of each member, and a clear and workable structure and process for the group to achieve its goals.

4. Performing

In this stage, the team is working effectively and efficiently toward achieving its goals. During this stage, the style of leadership becomes more indirect as members take on stronger participation and involvement in the group process. Ideally, the style includes helping members to reflect on their experiences and to learn from them.

5. Closing and Celebration

At this stage, it is clear to members and their organization that the team has achieved its goals (or a major milestone along the way toward the goal). It is critical to acknowledge this point in the life of the team, lest members feel unfulfilled and skeptical about future team efforts.